Links on this page: TI:Title: Is Water Pollution a Cause of Cutaneous Melanoma Chloroform in Alveolar Air of Individuals Attending Indoor Swimming Pools Disinfection of public pools and management of fecal accidents Risk of infection associated with microbiological quality of public swimming pools in Bologna, Italy Disinfection by-product formation in swimming pool waters: A simple mass balance Gastroenteritis outbreak. Disease linked to swimming pool and spa use Factors associated with respiratory problems in swimmers TI:Title: Is Water Pollution a Cause of Cutaneous Melanoma   Top of Page AU: Author: Rampen, FHJ; Nelemans, PJ; Verbeek, ALM AF: Author Affiliation Department of Dermatology, Sint Anna Hospital, Oss, The Netherlands SO: Source Epidemiology EPIDEY, Vol. 3, No. 3, p 263-265, May 1992. 26 ref. AB:Abstract The incidence of cutaneous melanoma has risen steeply in most countries with a predominantly white population. It is the malignancy increasing most rapidly in incidence in Western countries; incidence rates have almost doubled each decade. Theoretically, water pollution is an important candidate to consider as a cause of melanoma. Noxious agents in the water come into direct contact with the skin and its pigmentary system. Three possible routes of contact are: (1) aquatic sports in open waters which are heavily polluted with industrial and domestic impurities; (2) swimming pools which are usually decontaminated by chlorination with sodium hydrochlorite, an agent which has been shown to be mutagenic in the Ames test and other mutagenicity tests; and (3) in torrid regions, the frequent use of bathing water. Although the maximum concentration of polluting substances in tap water is bound by strict regulations, certain chemicals, including chlorinated organic materials (organo-halides), may be present in such concentrations as to be mutagenic to the pigment cell, with its specific metabolic pathways, without causing any health problems when ingested. In all three routes of exposure, chlorine plays a critical role. The skin pigmentary system seems to be a suitable target organ for chlorine compounds or by-products having oxidizing characteristics. It is concluded that the role of worldwide pollution of rivers and oceans, and the chlorination of swimming pool water, in causing melanoma needs urgent appraisal by the scientific community. (Lantz-PTT) PY: Publication Year 1992 DE: Descriptors *Chlorination; *Melanoma; *Public health; *Water pollution effects; Cancer; Chlorination byproducts; Cutaneous melanoma; Mutagens; Recreation; Swimming pools; Water treatment CL: Classification SW 3060 Water treatment and distribution; SW 3030 Effects of pollution SF: Subfile Water Resources Abstracts AN: Accession Number 9210521   Title Chloroform in Alveolar Air of Individuals Attending Indoor Swimming Pools Top of Page Author Aggazzotti, G; Fantuzzi, G; Righi, E; Tartoni, P; Cassinadri, T SO: Source Archives of Environmental Health AEHLAU, Vol. 48, No. 4, p 250-254, July/August 1993. 4 fig, 1 tab, 17 ref. AB: Abstract In an effort to minimize the risk of microbiological contamination, swimming-pool water is usually chlorinated with sodium hypochlorite or sodium dichloroisocyanurate. Chemical reaction between chlorine and organic substances in water produces halogenated compounds; among these, trihalomethanes are the most common. Chloroform is the most frequently occurring trihalomethane. As a volatile substance, chloroform can be released from water to air, where it can reach measurable levels in indoor swimming pools. Alveolar air samples were collected from 163 subjects at indoor swimming pools and from 77 non-exposed subjects to determine the public health risk of chloroform in these recreational areas. Chloroform was present in all samples collected from exposed subjects (median = 695.02 nmol/cubic m). Chloroform was found at very low levels in 53% of samples from non-exposed subjects. Alveolar air chloroform levels from people attending indoor swimming pools (mean value within each sampling session) were correlated with environmental air concentration (r = 0.907, p = .002). Analysis of variance showed that levels of chloroform in alveolar air depend on environmental air concentration, age, intensity of the sport activity, and kind of swimming. Chloroform levels in samples collected from competitive swimmers versus non-swimming visitors were different (F = 10.911, p = .001). Moreover, their pattern of swimming may affect chloroform concentration in alveolar air. The analysis of chloroform in alveolar air assesses indoor exposure in healthy subjects in a simple and inexpensive technique. (Brunone- PTT) 35 018389001 PY: Publication Year 1993 DE: Descriptors *Chlorination; *Chloroform; *Disinfection byproducts; *Public health; *Swimming pools; *Trihalomethanes; *Water treatment; Air pollution sources; Analysis of variance; Correlation analysis; Population exposure; Recreational areas; Statistical analysis CL: Classification SW 3060 Water treatment and distribution SF: Subfile Water Resources Abstracts AN: Accession Number 9310188 Disinfection of public pools and management of fecal accidents Top of Page AU: Author Kebabjian, RS AF: Author Affilition Recreational Health Program, Los Angeles Co. Dep. Health Serv., 2525 Corporate Pl., Rm. 150, Monterey Park, CA 91754, USA SO: Source Journal of Environmental Health [J. ENVIRON. HEALTH], vol. 56, no. 1, pp. 8-12, 1995 IS: ISSN 0022-0892 AB: Abstract The association between the use of swimming pools and illness has long been recognized. Discovery of hardier varieties of pathogens and increased use of spa pools and hot tubs has resulted in higher recommended levels of disinfectants. Chlorine is the most widely used disinfectant in pools. When maintained at proper levels, chlorine can inactivate or control most pathogens in swimming pool water. The exception is Cryptosporidium oocysts which are extremely resistant to most disinfectants and require high levels of chlorine for long periods of time to achieve deactivation. With the prevalence of Cryptosporidium infection estimated as high as 4.5% in the general population and the recent occurrence of five outbreaks of Cryptosporidiosis at public pools, more extreme measures must be taken to protect the health of pool users. Depending on the circumstances, when a fecal accident occurs at a public pool, it is prudent to consider closing the pool for up to a day so that the pool water can be properly disinfected and filtered. LA: Language English SL: Summary Language English PY: Publication Year 1995 PT: Publication Type Journal Article DE: Descriptors feces; pools; swimming; public health; pathogens; disinfection; chlorine; swimming pools; microbial contamination; Cryptosporidium; fecal coliforms ID: Identifiers Cryptosporidium; oocysts CL: Classification SW 3060 Water treatment and distribution; P 2000 FRESHWATER POLLUTION; H SE3.21 WATER POLLUTION/WATER QUALITY SF: Subfile Water Resources Abstracts; Pollution Abstracts; Health & Safety Science Abstracts AN: Accession Number 3858766 Title Risk of infection associated with microbiological quality of public swimming pools in Bologna, Italy Top of Page AU: Author Leoni, E; Legnani, P; Guberti, E; Masotti, A AF: Affiliation Dipartimento di Medicina e Sanita Pubblica, Via S Giacomo 12, 40126 Bologna, Italy SO: Source Public Health (Stockton) [Public Health (Stockton)]. Vol. 113, no. 5, pp. 227-232. Sep 1999. IS: ISSN 0033-3506 AB: Abstract Twelve public swimming pools in Bologna (Emilia-Romagna region, Italy) were investigated for the microbiological quality of water and surfaces of the pool edges, showers and changing rooms. At the same time a cross-sectional study was carried out on the health of 238 users (bathers) compared with 238 controls who practised sports other than swimming. Data regarding duration and frequency of exposure, behaviour and recent medical history were gathered by means of a questionnaire. All participants also underwent a medical examination. Compliance of the pool water to the microbiological standards set by Italian regulations was generally good; compliance was total when free chlorine residual was within the recommended limits. However, when analysis was extended to the various surfaces, potentially pathogenic bacteria such as P. aeruginosa and C. albicans were isolated. Eye burning and diarrhoea were the only declared symptoms and verrucas the only diagnosed disease showing statistically significant differences between bathers and controls. Verrucas tended to increase in proportion to exposure. Athlete's foot had a very high prevalence among both bathers (34%) and controls (27%). The environmental and epidemiological investigations both confirmed the risk of infection, mainly associated with the contamination of surfaces. LA: Language English SL: Summary Language English PY: Publication Year 1999 PD: Publication Date 19990900 PT: Publication Type Journal Article DE: Descriptors Recreation areas; Swimming pools; Public health; Microbial contamination; Water quality; Italy, Bologna; Infection; Risk; Microbiological Studies; Contamination; Epidemiology; Human Diseases; Pathogens CL: Classification P 6000 TOXICOLOGY AND HEALTH; H 12000 Epidemiology and Public Health; R2 23060 Medical and environmental health; SW 3030 Effects of pollution UD: Update 200008 SF: Subfile Pollution Abstracts; Health & Safety Science Abstracts; Risk Abstracts; Water Resources Abstracts AN: Accession Number 4662525 Disinfection by-product formation in swimming pool waters: A simple mass balance Top of Page AU: Author Judd, SJ; Black, SH AF: Affiliation School of Water Sciences, Cranfield University, Bedford, UK, [mailto:s.j.judd@cranfield.ac.uk] SO: Source Water Research [Water Res.]. Vol. 34, no. 5, pp. 1611-1619. Apr 2000. IS: ISSN 0043-1354 DO: DOI 10.1016/S0043-1354(99)00316-4 AB: Abstract Research into swimming pool water treatment has been conducted on both bench and pilot scales. Initial work made use of a recirculatory bench-scale rig containing about 45 1 of water. A more recent study was based on a 2.2 m super(3)-capacity pilot plant, a one-seventh linear scale model of an actual operational pool, incorporating conventional unit operations for swimming pool water treatment. The study is based on the use of a body fluid analogue (BFA), comprising the key dissolved organic and inorganic components of human perspiration and urine. Initial bench-scale trials indicated the analogue to be a reasonable representation of real body fluids in terms of levels of the key disinfection by-products (DBPs) of trihalomethanes (THMs) and chloramines (CAs) generated from conventional chemical disinfection by chlorination. Trials on the pilot-scale pool, on the other hand, indicated that: measured THM levels were generally much lower than those recorded on the bench scale, attaining equilibrium values after about 3 days of operation; chlorine demand, on the other hand, was about the same; for constant rate dosing of BFA the change in DBP levels on changing key operational determinants by plus or minus 50% was shown to be significant only on increasing the BFA dose rate (33% increase in THMs) and decreasing the disinfectant dose (50% decrease in THMs), the CA levels being largely unaffected throughout; dosing of BFA at a fluctuating rate (or intermittent) over a 14-h operating cycle produces higher levels of THMs than constant rate dosing at the same overall daily rate; the equilibrium ratio of chlorine arising in dissolved chloramines to that in dissolved THMs is around 42:1; a mass balance on the steady-state system can be carried out according to an assumption of either zero breakpointing or complete breakpointing to define the limits of DBP accumulation; the zero-breakpoint mass balance accounts for 38% of the organic carbon, 61- 63% of the chlorine and 84- similar to 100% of the ammoniacal and amino nitrogen, the exact figures being very sensitive to assumptions made regarding trichloramine formation; the complete breakpoint analysis accounts for 52% of the chlorine for 100% oxidation of the ammoniacal and amino nitrogen, the organic carbon usage being unchanged at 38%. It is surmised from the analyses undertaken that, even at the 100% efficiency limits of Henry's law governed physical desorption or total breakpoint chlorination, a net accumulation of chlorine and carbon arises. More rigorous analysis of both the pool water and the ventilated air would reveal the extent to which such an accumulation actually takes place. LA: Language English SL: Summary Language English PY: Publication Year 2000 PD: Publication Date 20000400 PT: Publication Type Journal Article DE: Descriptors Disinfection; Byproducts; Swimming Pools; Chlorination; Chlorine; Trihalomethanes; Organic Carbon; Desorption; Pilot Plants; Accumulation; Halomethanes CL: Classification SW 3060 Water treatment and distribution; P 2000 FRESHWATER POLLUTION; H 3000 Environment and Ecology; AQ 00004 Water Treatment UD: Update 200011 SF: Subfile Water Resources Abstracts; Pollution Abstracts; Health & Safety Science Abstracts; Aqualine Abstracts AN: Accession Number 4703532 Title Gastroenteritis outbreak. Disease linked to swimming pool and spa use. Top of Page AU: Author Holmes, SE; Kinde, MR; Pearson, JL; Hennes, RF AF: Author Affilition North Dakota State Dep. Health and Consol. Lab., Div. Dis. Control, State Capitol, Bismarck, ND 58505, USA SO: Source Journal of Environmental Health [J. ENVIRON. HEALTH.], vol. 51, no. 5, pp. 286-289, 1989 IS: ISSN 0022-0892 AB: Abstract A report of an outbreak of gastroenteritis led the North Dakota State Department of Health to investigate a suspected foodborne disease outbreak. Initial Interviews revealed no common meal, but all ill persons had stayed in one motel in Williston, N.D. Questionnaires were hand-delivered and/or mailed to 276 persons. Two hundred and twenty-one (80%) of the returned questionnaires were analyzable. The 48 persons who became ill had the following signs and symptoms: nausea, 94%; vomiting, 85%; abdominal cramps, 75%; diarrhea, 71%; fever, 25%. Swimming in the motel's pool/spa was statistically significantly associated with illness, with an odds ratio of 16.5, 95% confidence intervals of 3.1, 88.5 and a p-value < .001. Motel records showed several periods of free chlorine residuals of 0.0 mg/L for both the swimming pool and spa. Laboratory analysis of pool and spa water revealed Standard Plate Counts of greater than 6000 per ml. The spa also had total coliform contamination of greater than 15 per 100 ml. The cause of this outbreak was probably lack of adequate chlorination. LA: Language English SL: Summary Language English PY: Publication Year 1989 PT: Publication Type Journal Article DE: Descriptors surveys; North Dakota; statistical analysis; laboratory testing; environmental health; microbiology; coliforms; water quality ID: Identifiers gastrointestinal diseases; swimming pools CL: Classification H SM6.1 BASIC APPROACHES, CONCEPTS, AND THEORY; H SE3.21 WATER POLLUTION/WATER QUALITY; P 6000 TOXICOLOGY AND HEALTH; P 3000 SEWAGE & WASTEWATER TREATMENT SF: Subfile Health & Safety Science Abstracts; Pollution Abstracts AN: Accession Number 2158656 Title Factors associated with respiratory problems in swimmers Top of Page AU: Author Potts, J AF: Author Affilition Sch. Hum. Kinetics, Univ. British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada SO: Source Sports Medicine [SPORTS MED.], vol. 21, no. 4, pp. 256-261, 1996 IS: ISSN 0112-1642 AB: Abstract While swim training may improve fitness and reduce morbidity associated with asthma, there is both anecdotal and scientific information to suggest that there are health-related problems associated with swimming in chemically-treated pool water. Swimming pool water is disinfected in the interests of public health, although it would appear that chemical disinfection of the pool water may be the cause of many of the health-related problems that have been reported. There is some medical evidence suggesting that exposure to chemicals such as chlorine and its derivatives, chloramines or chloroform may damage the respiratory epithelium and cause increased vascular permeability and oedema of the mucous membranes lining the airways and lung, both of which may result in severe inflammatory reactions. LA: Language English PY: Publication Year 1996 PT: Publication Type Journal Article DE: Descriptors sports medicine; respiratory pathology; swimming pools; chemicals; disinfectants CL: Classification H SM9.45 SPORTS RELATED INJURIES SF: Subfile Health & Safety Science Abstracts AN: Accession Number 3899976